Source:   University of California - Irvine Date:   2005-08-18

Neuroscientists Identify How Trauma Triggers Long-lasting Memories In The Brain

Irvine, Calif., July 26, 2005 --A research team led by UC Irvine neuroscientists has identified how the brain processes and stores emotional experiences as long-term memories. The research, performed on rats, could help neuroscientists better understand why emotionally arousing events are remembered over longer periods than emotionally neutral events, and may ultimately find application in treatments for conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder.

The study shows that emotionally arousing events activate the brain's amygdala, the almond-shaped portion of the brain involved in emotional learning and memory, which then increases a protein called "Arc" in the neurons in the hippocampus, a part of the brain involved in processing and enabling the storage of lasting memories. The researchers believe that Arc helps store these memories by strengthening the synapses, the connections between neurons.

The study will appear in today's issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

"Emotionally neutral events generally are not stored as long-term memories," said Christa McIntyre, the first author of the paper and a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Neurobiology and Behavior in UCI's School of Biological Sciences, working with James L. McGaugh, research professor and a fellow at the Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. "On the other hand, emotionally arousing events, such as those of September 11, tend to be well-remembered after a single experience because they activate the amygdala."

In their experiments, the researchers placed a group of rats in a well-lit compartment with access to an adjacent dark compartment. Because rats are nocturnal and prefer dark environments, they tended to enter the dark compartment. Upon doing so, however, they were each given a mild foot-shock -- an emotional experience that, by itself, was not strong enough to become a long-lasting memory. Some of the rats then had their amygdala chemically stimulated in order to determine what role it played in forming a memory of the experience.

When they placed the rats that received both the mild foot-shock and the amygdala stimulation back in the well-lit compartment, the researchers found the rats tended to remain there, demonstrating a memory for the foot shock they had received in the dark compartment. These rats, the researchers found, also showed an increase in the amount of the Arc protein in the hippocampus. On the other hand, rats that received only the mild foot-shock and no amygdala stimulation showed no increase in Arc protein. When placed in the well-lit compartment, they tended to enter the dark compartment, suggesting they didn't remember the foot shock.

"In a separate experiment, we chemically inactivated the amygdala in rats very soon after they received a strong foot-shock," McIntyre said. "We found the increase in Arc was reduced and these rats showed poor memory for the foot shock despite its high intensity. This also shows that the amygdala is involved in forming a long-term memory."

The brain is extremely dynamic, McIntyre explained, with some genes in the brain, called "immediate early genes," changing after every experience. "We know the level of the immediate early gene that makes the Arc protein increases in the brain, simply in response to an exposure to a new environment," she said. "Our findings show that this gene makes more Arc protein in the hippocampus only if the experience is emotionally arousing or important enough to activate the amygdala and to be remembered days later."

The researchers were surprised to find no change in the gene that produced the Arc protein when the rat's amygdala was stimulated. "We weren't expecting the gene to be uncoupled from the Arc protein," McIntyre said. "We thought an activation of the amygdala would create more gene activation in the hippocampus. But we saw the same amount of the gene in the rats, regardless of the amygdala treatment. It was the Arc protein, created by the gene, that was different. This gives us new insight into the way lasting memories are stored."

The research was supported by several grants from the National Institutes of Health. In addition to McIntyre and McGaugh, co-authors of the study include Oswald Steward, UCI; Teiko Miyashita, Kristopher D. Marjon and John F. Guzowski, the University of New Mexico Health Science Center; and Barry Setlow, Texas A&M University.

Army: Mental ills worsen after troops return

Thirty percent develop problems within four months

Re: the film notes,

When I suggested a 'Freudian' reading of the film, I was considering the
necessary overthrow of the father required for the son to advance. Any reading
of Freud is taken with skepticism, but I wasn't considering material wealth.
More so the internalized oppression of a traumatized, perpetually infancy-
bound man. He is locked in a perpetual present. He may have slept with Pia in
the past, but the trauma is obviously affecting him most severely during the
24 hours in which the movie is set. And it is during this time that he reveals
that another man fathered a child with his "girlfriend" and it is also during
this time that he refuses Pia. What I see as his 'impotency' stems from the
onset/memory of the trauma and his inability to overthrow the father (which
Michael does physically later in the film). This is just my reading of the
film, which had a pretty profound affect on me, aesthetically and symbolically.

And I don't agree that Christian desires the power of his father, as the
mother is undesirable to the son and the father's power is one involving rape
and verbal subjugation (the father does not try to kill him either, only to
still and imprison him with words, as he tries to blame the son for the rape
at the table). I think he wants the power to overcome and overthrow the
father. So perhaps I'm not doing a 'strict' Freudian reading of the text. But
I can't help but think of "The Yellow Wallpaper", where Charlotte Perkins
Gilman's narrator siezes the key from John in order to overthrow him, the key
which she throws to the 'bushes' and makes him recover. I also consider the
large tree which Sylvia had to climb in Sarah Orne Jewett's "The White Heron"
in order to avoid becoming another trophy virginity-plundering for the hunter.
Maybe I was thinking more along the lines of Jung's anima/animus - our
feminine and masculine sides.

Hi guys,Just testing out the email module I just uploaded. You can access this by going to "create content" and then choosing "mail." Once in the mail, you need to choose to send to "email," which is a collection of our class emails. Hopefully, this will work!Alice

Hi everyone,
I am attaching some notes on "Daughters Are Forever." I know that you have all read the book and are likely not going to try to read it again by Thursday, so I made a "refresher" sheet with quotes from the book dealing prinicipally withMemory, Time, and Cultural Trauma. They may be of some use for class discussion.

Daughters Are Forever
Lee Maracle. Vancouver: Polestar, 2002.

PART ONE: GENESIS, VIRGIN BIRTH, CULTURAL MEMORY, AND GRIEF
" "Cut off from considering their past, they list in the momentary context of the present. […] The men don't see life; they barely feel their existence. […] The reflection of grief and shame in the eyes of others mirrored back at them is too terrifying to contemplate" (25).
" "Children hear what is said, see what is done, and are moved to become us. Their bodies carry memory. This memory is forever. […] They feel what is said in the rhythm and tones of the speaker. The body memory of origin invades their present, before language can explain it to them" (27).
" "The air just above the earth is heavy with chronic assault and unexpressed grief" (28).

PART TWO: MEMORY AND TIME
" "At some point humans need to face themselves. To do so requires the courage to become conscious. This courage is not born, it must be nurtured" (34).
" "In the absence of aliveness, night brings dead air. The dead air arrests memories of change and threatens to push up memories of carnage" (36).
" "'Residential school hangover, […] that's what I call the tension that arises when some courageous man utters words of encouragement or self-assurance in the face of colonial authority'" (51).
" Memories: Filtered by emotion and experience, layered, hooked to present being
- "Memories await the holder to unleash them, release them and free them. Nothing happens without a spark to catalyze freedom. In perfect darkness the imagined memory achieves a crazy drama, a wild perfection, false in night's gorgeous dark folds. […] In night's electric silence, in its swift movement, it stretches, encases, haunts and pushes up memory. Memory finds its way to this soft fold" (58-9).
- "'Imagined consequence is born of experience, of memory, of reality,' Marilyn said out loud. It was so clear to her today" (62).
- "The laughter popped the image of the dog [the past] from behind Marilyn's eyelids [back into the present]. She thought the laughter cheapened the complaint somewhat, minimizing it, but she welcomed the cancellation of memories that had called up old feelings she had no way of putting into context" (76).
- "She picked up a magazine and buried the emptiness trying to be born inside" (82).
- "Memory doesn't always stick when vision is too hung up on the immediate. Memory comes from some other process. It arises from the sum of our perception of reality [experience?]. It is tempered by the emotional angle from which we are looking at reality. The stretch we apply to significant memory is funneled through our emotional filters. We hold up memories that validate our perceived totality. In this way, all memory is slightly false" (93).
- "Memory is fragile. It comes to us in delicate wisps, layer upon layer of image-filled sound. It hooks itself to present being. Filtered by thousands of experiences, the truth underneath memory sometimes cannot quite pierce through all the layers. Memory melds with the present. Past tense, future and the moment unhinge, float about ill-disciplined in the mind of those too fatigued by their emotional senselessness to decipher meaning" (105). Are these people not sane then, if "the separation of moments in time defines sanity" (64)?
" Time: a critical illusion, defines sanity, the struggle to maintain a present-minded existence
- Time is a critical illusion. It is necessary to separate our dream world from the real world, from what is hope and what is planning from what is desired and what is executed. The separation of moments in time defines sanity. Marilyn searched for a way to locate herself somewhere in time" (64).
- "Time resolved itself. It settled on the past and indicated to her present self that all this had happened yesterday, years ago" (65).
- "…She worried at the effort it took to stay in the present" (93).

PART THREE: MEMORY, THE EFFECTS OF DRIFTING IMAGES AND FEAR, MEANING, AND TIME
" "She had not idea why her body was carrying on this way. It was like being immersed in physical fear without experiencing the emotional terror of it. Weird" (128).
" Memory: able to be twisted, colored, and filtered
- "Marilyn thought about her failing memory; she had a lot of days that she remembered little about. […] Lost memories. […] She didn't want to tell Gerri about either of these two things-her memory loss or her drifting images [which] seemed unreal and unnameable" (128).
- "The memory still hung in the air like an invisible dome of pressure…. For so many people, time was measured by Oka. […] The absurdity of this-clutching at the memory of Oka as though it were yesterday-seemed insane [unable to be referenced to time] right now. At the same time, it all seemed so entirely sensible in a crazy kind of way" (131).
- "Burnout: when what you're doing contradicts your beliefs. Belief is old, coded into the memory of every cell. Tribal consciousness, lineage memory, old beginnings were pushing up at the new layers inside Marilyn" (140).
- "The absence of peace is the enemy of time's illusion. Chronic strife bleeds the mind of its ability to indulge it. […] The illusion of peace cut into her belief in time, and the markers between the dream world and reality disappeared" (142).
- "…Victims fill themselves with hope, twist it into belief, conjure reality from this belief, colour the shape of life in the mauve shades of hope-deluded being" (161).
- "Still, she let herself feel the love come up, awaken her body, filter the thoughts and colour the memory of him. She let herself replay the conversation and rehear the smoothness of his voice and let its impact filter through this love" (178).
" Time: keeps one rooted in sanity, unless its concept is lost in scattered thoughts and by fear
- "Time is a critical illusion. It demarcates the difference between the physical and the spiritual world, between sanity and insanity, between life and death, consciousness and coma. Consciousness requires a deep appreciation of time. Marilyn was losing the system for calculating and marking it" (141-2).
- "Scattered thoughts skip the process of rolling around the brain in an ordered circle designed to create rational being by passing through experiential brain banks, registering in unfamiliar parts of the mind, inciting fear" (154).
- "Fear speeds up the blood, triggers old emotions, hooks onto the past in a self-victimizing way without the benefit of deep experiential thought. Without direction these bouncing thoughts move fear to near panic levels, driving breath to some places deep inside the body. In this state experience does not serve direction, it betrays" (154).
" "The community needed to deal with the post-traumatic stress syndrome that the [Oka] siege had created…" (135).
" "…When humans implode or explode they reach close by for the nearest enemy to scapegoat…" (135).
" "Behaving as equals requires that we believe we deserve the same things, that the same rules apply" (138).
" "'Meaning is important, but expression is more important. In not expressing yourself, you lose meaning. When you lose meaning, you lose value. You may save your thought, but in the end the saviour is devalued. Eventually, the thought becomes valueless, like the holder'" (172).

PART FOUR: FACING THE UGLINESS OF MEMORY, TIMELESSNESS, CULTURAL TRAUMA
" Memory: crowds the present, held hostage by fear
- "Memories of loss after loss after loss crowd the present" (204-5).
- "Marilyn pushed back on the memory, which seemed to want to just hang about like some old painting. Her memory was intruded on by the sensibility of her education. Words tumbled about the painted memory. She seemed to be standing in the middle of the fracas this created" (214).
- "[Panic stops breath lest it] commune with chords to recreate old memories too dangerous for her voice to greet" (235).
- "The closets were full of memories held hostage by fear […] something inside wanted to peek at the little piles of memory and commit them to Marilyn. This commitment would force Marilyn to engage them, face their ugliness" (236-7).
" Time: forever in the present for better or for worse
- "Marilyn thought it interesting that Elsie spoke in the present whether the even she was referring to was in the past or present" (215).
- "In this portal she walked through the wall separating past and present without knowing she had even left. She could not be sure if she was in the present or the past, the real or the unreal, the conscious or surreal" (205).
- "The ups and downs of going in and out of the present had been loosening the logical bolts holding her together for some time" (207).
- "[The rhythm] sounded timeless…. The timelessness made her feel forever alive-floating in space above time. Forever being has no beginning and is without end; it is about being. It comforted and encouraged her. She felt safe" (239).
" Cultural Trauma/Collective Memory
- "It was as though every human act led to some unchangeable, impossible connection to the human condition her people were consigned to" (234).
- "Go to a treatment centre that deals with early childhood stuff from a cultural perspective. Most of us just hurt. Being Indian hurts, Mom" (245).

Hi everyone,

LaCapra's first chapter is a veritable tirade against the suggestion of usingMiddle Voice in Historiography.  In case you need a little extra information on
Middle Voice and the Barthes argument, J. T. Martin of U. of Texas-Arlington hasa great, concise "cheat sheet"--so to speak--for the Subject/Agent (or Middle) Voice.  Here is the link:

http://www.uta.edu/english/fritz/subject1.html

Hi everyone,
I am attaching my notes for Sontag's "Regarding the Pain of Others." There is no standard formatting, just my own personal system, and there are likely
grammatical issues throughout. Nonetheless, I find them helpful for futurepapers, prelims, etc.I know that Alice has a lot to get through with Scarry's chapters 4 and 5, somaybe this will take a bit off her plate, or give her something to work with,since she obviously spent a lot of time on her handouts for class on Thursday(which were much appreciated by the way). Anyway, use them as you please.

Tony Russell
ENGL 590: Trauma Theory
Hughes

Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others

1: What Can a Photo Do?
" War is a man's game; the killing machine has a male gender (6).
" War photographs are a species of rhetoric as they reiterate, simplify, and create the illusion of consensus (6).
" No "we" should be taken for granted when the subject is looking at other people's pain (7).
" Photographs make matters "real" for the privileged and merely safe who prefer to ignore other nation's conflicts (7).
" To the militant, identity is everything, thus their interest in war photography (10).
" The destructiveness of war alone is not enough to deter the waging of them (12).
" While we may say that violence turns anybody subjected to it into a thing, others may claim that the victim becomes a hero or martyr (12).
" Photographs may be a call for peace or revenge (13).
" For many years, people believed that war images would prevent further wars, and though many believed WWI to be the war to end all wars, some warned that this was hardly the case (14-17).

2: How the Photo Is Employed
" Grisly images immediately get labeled news (18).
" Awareness of a select number of wars is constructed (20).
" Newer cameras and video cameras allow images to be distributed like never before (20-21).
" Something becomes "real" when it is photographed, but real catastrophes then seem represented; they seem like something out of the movies (22).
" Photos are quick representation, like a maxim or proverb (22).
" Shock has become a leading stimulus of consumption and source of value (23).
" The image as shock or the image as cliché are two aspects of the same presence (22).
" Photos have often been associated with death; many photos elude description (25).
" Photos have a greater strength today over their audience than the spoken word (25).
" People want to witness without the taint of artistry which is acquainted with insincerity and contrivance (26).
" The viewer's response to a photo depends on how the photo is identified or misidentified (29).
" Memory, especially those in photographs that are misidentified, alters an image (30).
" In newspapers, photos stand beside their articles; in magazines, they may appear across from advertising (32). Robbing them of their reverential place?
" The memory of war, like all memory, is mostly local (35).
" Many war images are as quickly forgotten as the wars themselves (36).
" Photos may unmask conflicts, but ultimately, the photographer's intentions do not determine the consequent meaning of the photograph (38-9).

3: Early War Photograph and the Desire for Catching the Subject Off Guard
" Traditionally, the most accepted images of suffering are those which are the product of either human or divine wrath (40).
" Perhaps only those who intend to do something about images should be able to look at them; otherwise, we may all simply be voyeurs (42). See Call to Action, Ch. 5, p. 101.
" No one should have to justify the veracity of a photograph (46).
" Government controls often prohibit showing the dead, maimed, or ill (49-50).
" Early photographers hoped their work would prevent further human misery and calamities (53).
" We desire "off guard" photos-where the subject is unaware-that are mid-action and unstaged (55).
" Though doctoring is easier than ever, the practice of inventing dramatic news pictures and staging events seems on its way to becoming a lost art (58). ???

4: The Uncovered and the Shrouded Face
" Staged death is co-spectatorship (60).
" The scale of war destroys what identifies humans as individuals (61).
" Photography may exploit, but may also be a form of criticism (61-5).
" Photos may serve to savor the appetite of human morbidity (64).
" 90's American war coverage featured skyshots rather than close-ups, keeping the victim from being viewed as a human being (66-7).
" Military central command posts, television producers, and media editors choose the limits of public knowledge (68).
" We normally see full frontal views of death and dying only in cases where they occur in exotic locations, places which are poor and "backward;" close-to-home shots shroud or censor faces (70-1).
" We are more likely to stomach the view of the "not us" (72). The Not-Me, by whom we define ourselves.

5: What to Show, What Not to Show and the Need for Collective Instruction
" War is an unstoppable aberration, peace is the norm, though history illustrates otherwise; peace is the exception (74).
" Early artists argued that images should appall and doctored or created their images in such a manner; the idea continues to inform modern representations to some extent (76).
" Photographs transform, make the image beautiful, terrible, unbearable-as it is not in real life (76). Are they, thus, an illusion?
" Portraits that do not name their victims become complicit in the cult of celebrity and privilege only certain races, occupations, and ethnicities (79).
" Some portraits may lead the viewer to feel that some problems are so great that no political intervention can remedy them (79).
" The spectacular, good or bad, has always played a role particularly in Western religious narratives (80).
" Photographs objectify, turn an event or person in something that can be possessed, something viewed as a transparent account of reality (81). Do photographs exclusively objectify? Is there a way to not objectify the photographed subject?
" Shock can become familiar, can wear off; however, repeated exposure does not always use up a full-hearted response (e.g., images of the Crucifixion, the seppuku of Lord Asano, etc.) (82-3).
" Pathos in the form of narrative does not wear out (83).
" The illustrative functions of photos leave out opinions, prejudices, fantasies and misinformation (84).
" Rape is rarely photographed (85). Why?
" Photos become Memories and over time, fiction; there is no such thing as Collective Memory, but there does exist Collective Instruction (85).
" Public repositories ensure that their images will always find a place in the people's consciousness (86-7).
" American exceptionalism keeps us from showcasing atrocities committed on our own soil which may indict us; Americans prefer to picture the evil that was there, not here (88).
" American atrocities are unpatriotic (94).
" Harrowing photos do not always lose their ability to shock, but they do not guarantee Understanding; that is the work of the narrative (89).
" Pictures force us to think about the extent of evil, specifically of things like racism (91). But how do racists feel when they view them?
" What atrocities are worthy of representation (93)?

6: Possible (Probable) Responses
" Images of the repulsive can allure (95).
" Love of mischief may be as natural to human beings as sympathy (98).
" Images may be both ecstatic and intolerable (98).
" Wherever people feel safe, they will be indifferent (100). Is this completely true?
" Violence and sadism are more acceptable in mass culture (100).
" Because war is likely unstoppable, so people are less responsive to its horrors (101).
" Compassion is an unstable emotion and must be translated into Action or it whither (101). Think Sartre and the Existentialists-responsibility, altruism, work, and protest as an alternative to despair and suicide.
" If we feel there is nothing we can do, we are likely to become bored, cynical, and apathetic-which fuel feelings of rage and frustration (101-02).
" Passivity dulls Feeling (102).
" Sympathy cannot be the only answer as it proclaims Innocence at the same time as Impotence (102).

7: Oversaturation of Images
" While many images eventually force us to look, they also tend to bore us (105). Remember OJ?
" Television images seem to bore the most (106).
" One critique of modernity is that we are constantly corrupted by a barrage of horrific images and narratives (106).
" No one is going to preserve an Ecology of Images-releasing graphic/violent images selectively and at intervals to keep them "fresh" (108).
" The cynical view: Only the spectacle is viewed as real, people aspire to be celebrities, reality is abdicated by media, the only realities are simulated ones (109). Is this really cynical (pessimistic, mocking, and skeptical)?
" It is the cynics and the war-weary that put forth the view that war imagery does little to affect the viewer (111).
" It is important to recognize that some will do anything to remain untouched (111).
" Photographing the Victim (112)
Victims want their suffering represented.
Want their suffering viewed as unique.

8: Why It Is Okay to Look
" Viewing hell does not tell us how to make it more heavenly (114).
" No one has the right to be ignorant (beyond a certain age) to the atrocities of mankind (114).
" Photographs/images perform the vital function of aiding remembering and memory (114).
" Remembering is ethical, but sometimes there is too much of it; it is overly focused on (114).
" Memory is the only relation we have with the dead (114).
" To make peace is to forget, to reconcile is to have faulty or limited memory (114).
" Paying attention, reflecting is to examine the rationalization given by established powers (115).
" Frustration at not being able to do anything causes us to accuse images or the way they are distributed as being indecent (115).
" Sight is effortless, requires spatial distance, can be turned off (118).
" There is nothing wrong with looking and thinking (118).

9: We Can Never Truly Understand
" Photos/Images may deepen one's sense of reality, but this demands a sacred or meditative space which is hard to come by in modern society (119).
" Because of widespread distribution, there is no way to guarantee reverential treatment or responsiveness to them (120).
" Photos in art museums share the fate of other spectacles, take place in social situations, are riddled with distractions (121).
" Up to a point, they belong better in a book that can be contemplated, though the book may be closed and the emotion may become transient (121).
" Narratives seem more effective than books; they go further (122-23). Maybe prompt us to action more effectively?
" The dead seem uninterested in us; what have they to do with us (123)?
" We do not and cannot imagine what it was like, how dreadful or terrifying it was, how normal it becomes (126).

Alice D'Amore
ENGL 590 - Trauma Theories
Prof. Shaun F.D. Hughes
June 16, 2005

The Body in Pain - "the act of verbally expressing pain is a necessary prelude to the collective task of diminishing pain" (9) - and Regarding the Pain of Others

Text focus: 1. difficulty in expressing pain; 2. political complications arising due to difficulty/objectification of eight central attributes of pain; 3. the nature of material and verbal expressibility/translation of the pain into power (3, 19, 28)
-Pain used to control - flagellation vs self-flagellation (33)

Pain is inherently resistant to/destructive of language/expressibility (4)
-basically expressed through sensory, affective, and cognitive reactions (8)
Pain, in turn, deconstructs language and then rebuilds it - pain unmakes the world (29)
Human action of making: 1. imagines 2. materializes mental object

Physical pain cannot be objectified (5); but contends that "psychological suffering, though often difficult for any one person to express, does have referential content, is susceptible to verbal objectification" (11)
We recognize pain in the weapon (16), which entails objectifying the pain and holding the referent in place (17)
-In light of current trauma studies, does this allegation hold water? Can the
unknown be known and expressible?

Pain, like trauma, occurs in a perpetual present/is always "happening" (9)
The feeling of pain entails the feeling of being "acted upon" (16)

To experience pain is to experience "certainty"; to witness pain is to experience "doubt" (13)
-What is the referent for this pain? The body/material? Or the feeling of the
pain/immaterial?
- Sontag: "By flying low, artistically speaking, such pictures are thought to be less manipulative-all widely-distributed images of suffering now stand under that suspicion-and less likely to arouse facile compassion or identification" (27)

UnMaking
The Structure of Torture - the interrogation and the infliction of pain
Sadistic power dependent on torture, as torture is the act which attempts to stabilize an "unstable" regime (27)
Interrogation necessitates/dependent on torture - fictional conflation (28-29)
Pain objectified in confession (31)
"pain [all feeling] is equivalent of felt-experience of what is unfeelable in death [silence]" (31)- samoan tattooing?
Camus' "The Wall" - the movement toward death, oblivion, obscurity and meaninglessness, the unmaking of one's world
- The diminishing of perimeters, the retraction from our extension into the external world (33) - the "unexperienceable absence of oneself from the world (35)
- "Physical pain is able to obliterate psychological pain because it obliterates all psychological content, painful, pleasurable, and neutral" (34) - but how are psychological and physical pain so simply divisible? Aren't they intertwined? Mutually dependent, even?
Torture inverts itself through declaring the confession as the responsibility of the tortured - that the tortured must betray him/herself in the confession is the falsehood which becomes belief, not only in language but in the body's weakening, the body's betrayal of the individual (47) - victim thus bears full responsibility for his/her torture
- Both language and body are turned against the self - and without language and without body, there is no self - unmaking of self (internal) as well as world (external)
- the torturer is "painless" (and evidently in doubt of the pain)" (37) - but how does this account for the trauma endured by torturers/soldiers (Fanon's Algeria?)
- the strength of the regime is doubly fortified when the tortured "confesses" - believing in the betrayal of him/herself and speaking the words of the torturer

From Human Rights Watch (http://hrw.org)

Salah, Age 13
"There were soldiers from Sudan, Janjaweed, and planes and bombs. I saw the Janjaweed take girls and women. The women were screaming. They seized them, they took them by force. The pretty ones were taken away…Girls were taken, small girls too, I think 5 and 7 and 14. Some came back after four or five hours…some we haven't seen again."

Magda, Age 9
"We were running from the burning houses. Janjaweed and soldiers with guns and planes and bombs came, all together, quickly. They were shooting…my uncle was shot. I saw them taking women and girls away. All of us-my family-we were screaming and running from the Janjaweed to hide in the wadi [riverbed or oasis]…holding each other by the arms to keep together. Here in camp we are safe, but my father…he was lost."

lynching of George Meadows Auschwitz Iraqis forced into homosexual acts
Torture of Iraqis

Fallujah desecration of Amercican soliders' bodies

Torture as entertainment A variation on the water torture discussed in text

The infliction of pain becomes falsely conflated with another's "power", through the manipulation of language (37)
The shelter of torture, the structure of the house, becomes an extension of the body into civilization (39) - which in turn becomes the weapon, thus annihilating any civility, the unmaking of the made, the unmaking of civilization (41) - i.e. refrigerator door becomes weapon; same as "doctor" becoming torturer (Mendel, etc.)
During torture, victim reverts to "prelanguage" (43) - I don't agree - torture is not a moving backwards; if it's an unmaking, it's a movement into an unknown state, not one previously referenced in the security of the mother-connection
The wound and the scream - "Just as the words of the one have become a weapon, so the words of the other are an expression of pain, in many cases telling the torturer nothing except how badly the prisoner hurts. The question, whatever its content, is an act of wounding; the answer, whatever its content, is a scream" (46)
- Vs. Caruth - "it is to the individual experiencing [pain] overwhelmingly present, more emphatically eal than any other human experience, and yet is almost invisible to anyone else, unfelt, and unknkown" (51)
Dimensions of physical pain (under 2. objectification of pain) (53-57)
1. aversiveness
2. internal
3. exernal
4. conflation of private and public
5. language destroyer
6. consciousness obliterator
7. totality
8. resistance to objectification

From wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture
Torture devices and methods
It is plainly evident that, since the earliest times, tremendous ingenuity has been devoted to the devisal of ever more effective and mechanically simpler instruments and techniques of torture. That those capable of applying such genius to the science of pain could in future employ their capabilities in other directions was not lost on the authorities: for example, after Perillos of Athens demonstrated his newly invented brazen bull to Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum, Perillos himself was immediately put inside to test it, but he was removed before he died.
Torture does not require complex equipment. Several methods need little or no equipment and can even be improvised from innocuous household or kitchen equipment. Methods such as consumption by wild animals (antiquity), impalement (Middle Ages) or confinement in iron boxes in the tropical sun (World War II Asia), are examples of other methods which required little more than readily available items.
Torture using chemicals
Torture victims may be forced to ingest chemicals or other products (such as broken glass, heated water, or soaps) that cause pain and internal damage.
Irritating chemicals or products may be inserted into the rectum or vagina, or applied on the external genitalia. Cases of women being punished for adultery by having hot peppers inserted into their vaginas were reported in India. Similar means were used in many instances in African strife.
Electrical torture
A modern method of torture is to apply electrical shocks to the body. For added effects, torturers may apply the shocks to the genitalia or insert the electrode into the mouth, rectum or vagina.
During the Algerian War of Independence, sections of the French Army were notorious for the use of the gégène (electrical generator) on suspects. There are many reported instances of electrical torture by the government of the People's Republic of China in Tibet, especially against Buddhist nuns, with, in particular, the insertion of electrodes into the rectum or vagina.
Torture methods
" Bastinado
" Beatings and physical violence
" Tickle torture
" Boiling
" "The boats": see Scaphism
" The boot
" The Brazen bull
" Chinese box
" Chinese water torture
" Death by a thousand cuts
" Disfigurement
" Drowning or Water cure (Scarry recalls immersion in feces - the "dry submarine" used in Portugal - which forces us to consider the demarcation line between the external and internal world by forcing the body into Kristeva's "abject")
" Flagellation
" Flaying
" Foot roasting
" Isolation
" Mock executions
" Peine forte et dure (Pressing)
" Pitchcapping
" Rape
" Scaphism
" Sensory deprivation
" Shabach technique
" Sleep deprivation
" Sound (Extremely high volumes, dynamic range, low frequency or noise intended to interfere with rest, cognition and concentration)
" The Spanish boot
" Squassation
" Strappado (also known as "reverse hanging" or "Palestinian hanging")
" Water boarding
" The water cure: see Drowning
" Whipping
Torture devices
" Brazen bull
" Breaking wheel
" Chinese raping chair
" Iron maiden
" Judas Chair
" Peace breaker's muzzle
" Pear of Anguish
" Pillory
" Rack
" Scavenger's daughter
" Scold's bridle
" Spanish boot
" Stocks
" Tablillas
" Thumbscrew
" Tucker telephone
" Wire jacket
The Structure of War -the juxtaposition of injured bodies and unanchored issues
"The most obvious analog to torture is war" (61) - war is mass unmaking, as Sontag notes, "They show how war evacuates, shatters, breaks apart, levels the built world" (8)
Two attributes of war (63):
1. injuring (and subsequent disowning of the injury)
2. contest (and provides substantiation for issues designated winner as result of contest) (137)
War demands (64-65):
1. acceptance and continued sponsorship of war (by political leaders)
2. participation of a mass number of people (traditionally more in war than in peacetime contests - sports, etc.) (91) - Sontag: "It takes some very peculiar circumstances for a war to become genuinely unpopular. (The prospect of being killed is not necessarily one of them.) (38)
Paths by which injury disappears (66-67):
1. omission
2. renaming of act of injury (agency of language again)
3. by creating metaphors to marginalize and misappropriate injury (80)
human body as extension of weapon - conflation of weapon and protection ("handgun")

Ash meets arm, AoD risk - by parker bros.

"We will respond to the injury (a severed artery in one giant, a massive series of leechbites in another) as an imaginary would in an imaginary body, despite the fact that imaginary body is itself made up of thousands of real human bodies, and thus composed of actual (hence woundable) human tissue" (71) - WWI - thirty-nine million corpses; WWII - fifty-five million corpses (72)

Injury as byproduct or cause for war? (73) - chicken and the egg (trees and paper)
- injury thus becomes "by-product" of "making" (74) - shifts responsibility, as in torture - and as Sontag reflects in Franco's shifting of blame of destroying the town Guernica to the Basques in 1937 and the Serbs blaming Bosnia for bombing the "breadline" and "market" massacres in the early 90s (11)
- "cost" of casualties (75) - war full of consumeristic metaphors - yields profit of destruction (only at end) (95)

War connoted with contest/play (82) - chess, risk - soldiers as pawns - and public propaganda supports such
- "a military contest differs from other contests in that is outcome carries the power of its own enforcement; the winner may enact its issues because the loser does not have the power o reinitiate the battle, does not have the option to further contest the issues or to conest the nature of the contest or its outcome or the political consequences of that outcome" (96)
- conflating millions of bodies with 'one body' (117-18)
- conflating the bodies with a political belief
- the emptying of the body of cultural content/humanity (118) - hooded Iraqi insurgents
- emptying wound of reference
- objectifies bodies - to which side does body belong? (119) - Sontag/Weil: "violence turns anybody subjected to it into a thing" (12) - Brady's replacing of dead bodies by photographers for effect (54) - "war's murderousness destroys what identifies people as individuals" (61)
- rather than make, war unmakes human being, but makes real own agenda (123)
- war as destroyer of language - Henry James in Sontag: "One finds it in the midst of all this as hard to apply one's words as t endure one's thoughts. The war has used up words; they have weakened, they have deteriorated . . ." (25)

Making
Pain and Imagining
"Physical pain, then, is an intentional state without an intentional object; imagining is an intentional object without an experienceable intentional state" (164)
- pain = imagination's intentional state
- imagination = pain's intentional object
vision and hearing are inclusively bound to their object, more so than the body's positioning (165)
- disembodiment through object/person
other forms of consciousness can be understood through the act of imagining, rather than assuming imagination is just a miming of the "ordinary given condition" (167)

imagining as reconstructor of world? (171)
- pain and imagination as framing of intentionality for reconstruction of broken world (172)
- Sontag: "But the photographic image, even to the extent that it is a trace . . . cannot be simply a transparency of something that happened. It is always the image that someone chose; to photograph is to frame, and to frame is to exclude" (46)
- regaining of speech/self/imagination succeeding pain = rebirth
sentient vs. non-sentient surfaces (174)
- reimagining of weapon (instrument of pain/sentient) into tool (instrument of imagination/non-sentient - connects "worker" to "work") (176)
- Sontag notes that Woolf saw WWII as a failure of "imagination, of empathy: we have failed to hold this reality in mind" (8)

The Structure of Belief and its Modulation into Material Making

The Interior Structure of the Artifact

Susan Sontag - Regarding the Pain of Others

Photos as windows to oppression - how does camera act as body/eye? Whose body/eye? Tool? Weapon? Witness? Is it real? Representation? Commercialism?

The image depends "on words," on interpretation (29) - "But one day captions will be needed, of course" (29) - remembrance? Reinterpretation?

Photos only serve as evidence for collective belief - "images offering evidence that contradicts cherished pieties are invariably dismissed as having been staged for the camera" (10-11)

Images of Zulus killing Boer women and children, Voortrekker Museum, Pretoria/Thswane

Tyler Hicks's "A Nation Challenged" (Sontag 13)

Robert Capa - The Falling Soldier Land Distribution Meeting (1936)

Goya - Disasters of War (Los Desastres de la Guerra) Eddie Adams - 1968

Image from Verdun (anonymous) 1916 Nhem Ein -The Killing Fields under Pol Pot

Javier Bauluz - Indifferencia

Alice D'Amore
ENGL 590 Trauma Theories
Prof. Shaun F.D. Hughes
June 21, 2005

The Body in Pain cont….

Making
Pain and Imagining
"Physical pain, then, is an intentional state without an intentional object; imagining is an intentional object without an experienceable intentional state" (164)
- pain = imagination's intentional state
- imagination = pain's intentional object
vision and hearing are inclusively bound to their object, more so than the body's positioning (165)
- disembodiment through object/person
other forms of consciousness can be understood through the act of imagining, rather than assuming imagination is just a miming of the "ordinary given condition" (167)

imagining as reconstructor of world? (171)
- pain and imagination as framing of intentionality for reconstruction of broken world (172)
- Sontag: "But the photographic image, even to the extent that it is a trace . . . cannot be simply a transparency of something that happened. It is always the image that someone chose; to photograph is to frame, and to frame is to exclude" (46)
- regaining of speech/self/imagination succeeding pain = rebirth
sentient vs. non-sentient surfaces (174)
- reimagining of weapon (instrument of pain/sentient) into tool (instrument of imagination/non-sentient - connects "worker" to "work") (176)
- Sontag notes that Woolf saw WWII as a failure of "imagination, of empathy: we have failed to hold this reality in mind" (8)

The Structure of Belief and its Modulation into Material Making
Through the texts she attempts to prove that pain and power are conflated - "one of the peculiar characteristics of pain is that something which is its opposite, power, can reside in a different location yet come to be perceived as increasing or decreasing as pain increases or decreases" (218).
- "The concepts of body and voice, in contrast, though not themselves prior to culture and artifice, are perhaps as close to prior as is possible, for they appear to emerge as explanatory rubrics in early moments of creating, or when there is some problem in the relation between maker and made thing that carries us back to the original moment of making" (182)
- Hurt occurs in context of disbelief and doubt - pain/body (man) and God (voice) are conflated - for Scarry, the physical and the verbal/mental remain separated
1. deity (the immutable) has visible substantiation in body's (woundable's) wound/tissue alteration
2. man modified
3. wounding reenacts creation because it reenacts the power of alteration present in creation/reproduction (183) - creating and wounding are separate, but often conflated
- biblical stories as connection between body and belief (187)
- lists of names reenact the rhythm of substantiation, "the passage into the material world (188) - can the same be said for medieval listings?
- Two primary psychological categories, belief and disbelief, which draws us back to the first chapter on experiencing pain and witnessing
- "to reassert and replicate its aliveness, and soon occupy more and more space, to achieve greater and greater presence, is again a visible alteration whose power to overwhelm can only in the twentieth century be missed because we now live at a time when the growth of populations is simply assumed" (192) - sounds like a nice def'n for colonialism
- "the invented Artifact allows a people to experience itself in the capacity of spirit rather than matter, it is here not a diminution of the body but its amplification that sponsors the increased apprehensibility of the spirit. An extreme change in the visible world now has a referent in the invisible world; the body in its most intense presence becomes the substantiation of the most disembodied reality" (193-94) - the body is converted into belief

- How does this draw us back to the steady distancing of God's voice in the OT? To where prophets were primarily privy to his voice? Then his son in the NT? And now oil on windows in the shape of the virgin mary?

- If trauma is an unconscious disembodiment (195), how do we render its occurrence in light of Scarry's analysis - where wounding is conflated with creation? (197)

- How is/was Christianity used to condone 'weapons' of torture? Does the text's interpretation of God's disembodiment reflect political regimes today? Especially when Scarry claims: "The greatness of human vulnerability is not the greatness of divine invulnerability. They are unrelated and therefore can occur together: God is both omnipotent and in pain" (214)?

- Where creation magnifies (belief), wounding contracts (moments of disbelief - Lot's wife by Akhmatova) (199, 201)
- In levels of power - those with representation are "powerful" (but body is limiting); those without representation are "powerless" (207) - divine power is bodiless and thus limitless and a construct of human "making"/imagination
- Shared body vs. private body (256) - Butler's ecstasy needs revisiting?

The Interior Structure of the Artifact
Attempts to address the body's "sentiencing" of outside world and the duality of the made object as site of projection and reciprocation (281)
- "as physical pain destroys the mental content and language of the person in pain, so it also tends to appropriate and destroy the conceptualization abilities and language of persons who only observe the pain" (279) - as in witnessing - person must see pain in order to wish it gone (290-91)
- Instability of perception - political power as entailing power of self-description?
- Western religion and materialism involved the making of making
- Attributes of making:
1. arises from framing of physical pain (internal) vs. imagined objects (external)
2. the body projects (creating to deprive the external world of the privilege of being inanimate - poets, etc. 285) now freestanding object and will attempt to reproduce/recreate it
3. object takes two forms: materialized (making real) and imagined (making up - which gives pain to initial creation because it alters it - 288)

- "what within our willful recreation of the external world repeatedly beguiles us into crediting it with awareness and hence with responsibility for its actions?" (287) - tancred's tree?
o Object awareness - projection onto inanimate object, objectification of human compassion, is ever dependable through the imagination (i.e. a grandmother's chair or necklace) (291) - but is this the same path projection onto weapons takes?
- "Making real of the counterfactual" (299)
- "the object is only a fulcrum or lever across which the force of creation moves back onto the human site and remakes makers" (307)

Jan Saenredam (Dutch, c. 1565-1607) TITLE ON OBJECT: Jael and Sisera - Northcote

Rembrandt the sacrifice of Isaac josse lieferinxe (?) saint Irene nurses saint sebastian

Alice's Trauma Biblio

I've highlighted some of the big names out there.

Antze, Paul, and Michael Lambek. Tense Past: Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory. New York: Routledge, 1996.
Association, American Psychiatric. "Trauma and Health: Physical Health Consequences of Exposure to Extreme Stress." Ed. Paula P. Schnurr and Bonnie L. Green. Washington, D.C.: APA, 2004.
Barrett, Deirdre. Trauma and Dreams. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996.
Bennett, Jill, and Rosanne Kennedy. World Memory: Personal Trajectories in Global Time. Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Beverley, John. Testimonio: On the Politics of Truth. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004.
Bloom, Sandra L. "Trauma Theory Abbreviated". Philadelphia, 1999. Community Works. (1999): 2004. <http://www.sanctuaryweb.com >.
Bracken, Patrick. Trauma: Culture, Meaning, and Philosophy. London; Philadelphia: Whurr, 2002.
Butler, Judith. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. London; New York: Verso, 2004.
---. Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge, 2004.
Caruth, Cathy. Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.
---. Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
Connerton, Paul. How Societies Remember. Cambridge England; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Craft, Linda J. Novels of Testimony and Resistance from Central America. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997.
Daniels, Patsy J. The Voice of the Oppressed in the Language of the Oppressor: A Discussion of Selected Postcolonial Literature from Ireland, Africa, and America. Literary Criticism and Cultural Theory. New York: Routledge, 2001.
David-Ménard, Monique. Hysteria from Freud to Lacan: Body and Language in Psychoanalysis. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989.
Davoine, Françoise, and Jean-Max Gaudillière. History Beyond Trauma: Whereof One Cannot Speak, Thereof One Cannot Stay Silent. New York: Other Press, 2004.
de Graef, Ortwin, Vivian Liska, and Katrien Vloeberghs. "Introduction: The Instance of Trauma." European Journal of English Studies 7.3 (2003): 247-55.
DeSalvo, Louise A. Virginia Woolf: The Impact of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Her Life and Work. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989.
Doane, Janice L., and Devon L. Hodges. Telling Incest: Narratives of Dangerous Remembering from Stein to Sapphire. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2002.
Edkins, Jenny. Trauma and the Memory of Politics. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Elsass, Peter. Treating Victims of Torture and Violence: Theoretical, Cross-Cultural, and Clinical Implications. New York: New York University Press, 1997.
Everstine, Diana Sullivan, and Louis Everstine. The Trauma Response: Treatment for Emotional Injury. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 1993.
Eyerman, Ron. Cultural Trauma: Slavery and the Formation of African American Identity. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. New York: Grove Press, 1967.
---. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, 1963.
Farrell, Kirby. Post-Traumatic Culture: Injury and Interpretation in the Nineties. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
Felman, Shoshana. Literature and Psychoanalysis: The Question of Reading, Otherwise. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.
Felman, Shoshana and Dori Laub, M.D. Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History. New York: Routledge, 1992.
Felman, Shoshana, and Martha Noel Evans. Writing and Madness: (Literature/Philosophy/Psychoanalysis). Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003.
Freud, Sigmund. Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1977.
Freud, Sigmund, Josef Breuer, and Nicola Luckhurst. Studies in Hysteria. London; New York: Penguin Books, 2004.
Freud, Sigmund, and James Strachey. Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Standard ed. New York: Norton, 1989.
---. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books, 2000.
Gilmore, Leigh. Autobiographics: A Feminist Theory of Women's Self-Representation. Reading Women Writing. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994.
---. The Limits of Autobiography: Trauma and Testimony. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000.
Goodwin, Jean, and Reina Attias. Splintered Reflections: Images of the Body in Trauma. [Basic Behavioral Science]. 1st ed. New York: Basic Books, 1999.
Haaken, Janice. Pillar of Salt: Gender, Memory, and the Perils of Looking Back. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998.
Herman, Judith L. and Mary R. Harvey. "Adult Memories of Childhood Trauma: Naturalistic Clinical Study." journal of traumatic stress 10.4 (1997): 557-71.
Herman, Judith Lewis. Trauma and Recovery. New York, N.Y.: BasicBooks, 1992.
Jarraway, David R. "'Excremental Assault' in Tim O'brien: Trauma and Recovery in Vietnam War Literature." Modern Fiction Studies 44.3 (1998): 695-711.
King, Nicola. Memory, Narrative, Identity: Remembering the Self. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000.
Lacan, Jacques. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis. 1st American ed. New York: Norton, 1978.
Lacan, Jacques, and Anthony Wilden. The Language of the Self; the Function of Language in Psychoanalysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968.
LaCapra, Dominick. Writing History, Writing Trauma. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
Laplanche, Jean. Life and Death in Psychoanalysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
Leys, Ruth. Trauma: A Genealogy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
Loftus, Elizabeth F., and Katherine Ketcham. The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse. 1st ed. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
Mitchell, Juliet. Mad Men and Medusas: Reclaiming Hysteria. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2000.
Olick, Jeffrey K. States of Memory: Continuities, Conflicts, and Transformations in National Retrospection. Politics, History, and Culture. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003.
Ørner, Roderick J. and Peter Stolz. "Making Sense of Repetition Phenomena by Integrating Psychotraumatology and Psychodynamic Psychotherapy." Journal of traumatic stress 15.6 (2002): 465-71.
Ortwin de Graef, Vivian Liska, and Katrien Vloeberghs. "Introduction: The Instance of Trauma." European Journal of English Studies 7.3 (2003): 247-55.
Parkin-Gounelas, Ruth. Literature and Psychoanalysis: Intertextual Readings. Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave, 2001.
Rabkin, Leslie Y. Psychopathology and Literature. San Francisco: Chandler Pub. Co., 1960.
Ramadanovic, Petar. Forgetting Futures: On Memory, Trauma, and Identity. Lanham; Boulder; New York; Oxford: Lexington Books, 2001.
Roth, Susan, Elana Newman, David Pelcovitz, Bessel van der Kolk, and Francine S. Mandel. "Complex Ptsd in Victims Exposed to Sexual and Physical Abuse: Results from the Dsm-Iv Field Trial for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder." Journal of traumatic stress 10.4 (1997): 539-55.
Rothschild, Babette. The Body Remembers: The Psychophysiology of Trauma and Trauma Treatment. New York: Norton, 2000.
---. The Body Remembers Casebook: Unifying Methods and Models in the Treatment of Trauma and Ptsd. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2003.
Scarry, Elaine. The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Schacter, Daniel L. The Cognitive Neuropsychology of False Memories. Hove, East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press Ltd., 1999.
---. How the Mind Forgets and Remembers: The Seven Sins of Memory. London: Souvenir, 2003.
---. Memory, Brain, and Belief. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999.
---. Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. 1st ed. New York, NY: BasicBooks, 1996.
Schacter, Daniel L., Joseph T. Coyle, and Harvard Center for the Study of Mind Brain and Behavior. Memory Distortion: How Minds, Brains, and Societies Reconstruct the Past. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995.
Schwall, Hedwig. "Mind the Gap: Possible Uses of Pscyhoanalysis in the Study of English Literature. With an Illustration from Joyce's 'Eveline'." European Journal of English Studies 6.3 (2002): 343-59.
Seshadri-Crooks, Kalpana. "The Primitive as Analyst: Postcolonial Feminism's Access to Psychoanalysis"." Cultural Critique 28 (1994): 175-218.
Sontag, Susan. Regarding the Pain of Others. 1st ed. New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 2003.
Soo-Jin Lee, Sandra. "Aged Bodies as Sites of Remembrance: Colonial Memories in Diaspora." World Memory: Personal Trajectories in Global Time. Ed. Jill Bennett and Rosanne Kennedy. Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. 87-100.
Tal, Kalâi. Worlds of Hurt: Reading the Literatures of Trauma. Cambridge Studies in American Literature and Culture; 95. Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Toremans, Tom. "Trauma: Theory - Reading (and) Literary Theory in the Wake of Trauma." European Journal of English Studies 7.3 (2003): 333-51.
Van der Kolk, Bessel A. Psychological Trauma. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1987.
Van der Kolk, Bessel A. and Onno Van der Hart. ""the Intrusive Past: The Flexibility of Memory and the Engraving of Trauma"." Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Ed. Cathy Caruth. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. 158-82.
Van der Kolk, Bessel A., Alexander C. McFarlane, and Lars Weisæth. Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society. New York: Guilford Press, 1996.
Vickroy, Laurie. Trauma and Survival in Contemporary Fiction. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2002.
Weisæth, Lars. "The European History of Psychotraumatology." Journal of traumatic stress 15.6 (2002): 443-52.
Whitehead, Anne. "Geoffrey Hartman and the Ethics of Place: Landscape, Memory, and Trauma." European Journal of English Studies 7.3 (2003): 275-92.
---. Trauma Fiction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004.
Whitfield, Charles L. Memory and Abuse: Remembering and Healing the Effects of Trauma. Deerfield Beach, Fla.: Health Communications, 1995.

I'm a bit troubled by Caruth's flippant assumption that trauma can be analyzed through language. Scarry, on the other hand, claims years before Caruth that to witness pain is to be in doubt, because pain cannot be fully expressed through language. Just curious as to what ya'll thought about this.